Drug Profile of Tizanidine HCl

Drug Profile of Tizanidine HCl Structure: Categories: Analgesics, Anticonvulsants, Parasympatholytics, Muscle Relaxants, Central, Adrenergic aipha-2 Receptor Agonists, Neuromuscular Agents, Muscle relaxant , Skeletal Weight: Average: 253.711 Monoisotopic: 253.018893678 Chemical Formula: C9H8ClN5S IUPAC Name: 5-Chloro-N-(4, 5-dihydro-1H-imidazol-2, 1, 3-benzothiadiazol-4-amine Taxonomy: Kingdom: Organic Compounds Superclass: Heterocyclic Compounds Class: Benzothiadiazoles Direct parent: Benzothiadiazoles Alternative parents: Chlorobenzenes:Thiadiazoles; Polyamines; Aryl Chlorides; Guanidines; Organochlorides. Substituents: Chlorobenzene: Aryl chloride; Aryl halide; Thiadiazole; Guanidine; Azole; Organochloride; Organohalogen; Polyamine; Organonitrogen compound; Amine. Classification: These belong to Heterocyclic. This compound belongs to the benzothiadiazoles. Description: Aromatic compound containing a benzene ring fused to a thiadiazole ring. Pharmacology: Indication: To manage increased muscle tone associated with spasticity. For the management of spasticity Tizanidine is a short- acting drug. It is a agonist at a2-adrenergic receptor sites and by increasing presynaptic inhibition of motor neurons presumably decreases spasticity. Pharmacodynamics: Tizanidine has no direct effect on neuromuscular junction or skeletal muscle fibers and in monosynaptic spinal reflexes there is no major effect, in animal models. On polysynaptic pathways the effects of Tizanidine are more. To reduce the facilitation of spinal motor neurons the overall effect of these actions are thought. Mechanism of action: By increasing the presynaptic inhibition of motor neurons reduces Tizanidine spasticity through agonist action at a2-adrenergic receptor sites. Volume of distribution: 2.4L/kg Protein binding: 30% Route of elimination: Approximately 95% of an administered dose is metabolized. Half life: 2.5 hours Affected organisms: Humans and other mammals Drug interactions: Amlodipine: Amlodipine may decrease the clearance and metabolism of Tizanidine During co-administration considers alternate use caution or Therapy. Benazepril: With ACE inhibitor Tizanidine increases the risk of hypotension. Captopril: With ACE inhibitor Tizanidine increases the risk of hypotension. Solubility: Storage: cool dry place and in well-closed container. 4.3. EXCIPIENT PROFILE: Pharmaceutical excipients are substances, alternative than the pharmacologically effective drug or prodrug, that are indicated in the manufacturing process are hold in the final pharmaceutical compound dosage form. Excipients bring enhance practicability to the pharmaceuticals, advancement the alterations in the drug development and aid to advance patent life as well. Excipients arrange the products also practical at lower cost, they use a lot aim by the pharmaceutical industry which is overflow with pressure to reduce cost. Excipients show a comprehensive change of useful in pharmaceutical dosage forms, along with: The bioavailability and solubility of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) have been modulated. In dosage forms stability of the active ingredients have been increased. Preferred polymorphic conformations or forms are maintained by helping active ingredients. Maintaining the pH and/or osmolality of liquid productions. Acting as emulsifying agents, antioxidants, tablet binders, aerosol propellants, and as a tablet disintegrate. Preventing dissociation or aggregation (e.g., polysaccharide and actives protein). Immunogenic responses of active ingredients are modulated (e.g., adjuvant). Polymers: Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose Synonyms: Hydroxypropyl methyl ether, HPMC, Methocel. Methylcellulose propylene glycol ether, Methyl hydroxypropyl methyl ether [9004-65-3]. Non- proprietary name: BP:Hypromellose USP:Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose Functional Category: Coating agent, viscosity- increasing agent, tablet binder. Description: HPMC is tasteless and an odorless, white fibrous or granular powder, white or creamy. Alkalinity /acidity: pH 5.5-8.0 for a 1%w/w aqueous solution. Melting point: Browns at 190-200 °C, chars at 225-230 °C, glass transition temperature is 170-180 °C. Moisture content: Hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose consume moisture from the atmosphere, the quantity of water consumed based on the moisture content and relative humidity and temperature of the surrounding air. Solubility: Soluble in forming a viscous colloidal solution, cold water, practically insoluble in ethanol (95%), chloroform, and either, but soluble in mixtures of dichloromethane and ethanol and mixtures of dichloromethane and methanol, and mixtures of alcohol and water. Methocel productUSP 28 DesignationNormal Viscosity (cps) Methoel K4M Premium 22084000 Methocel K100M Premium2208100000 Methocel K15M Premium220815000 Most influential factors is drug solubility for designing a drug release pattern. Require higher amounts of HPMC in the tablet because they are highly water soluble drugs. Suitable types of HPMC are the methocel K100M and methocel K4M grades, which have a characteristics of quick hydration and gel formation. The higher amount of HPMC or viscosity of HPMC can decrease the drug release rate in the tablet. Generally, maximum contended of methocel in the tablet is less 20%. If the contended is below 20%, there is a danger for excess dissolution in the 1st stage or initial erosion. Application in pharmaceutical formulation or technology: Hypromellose is mostly used in oral and pharmaceutical formulation. Hypromellose is most primarily used as a binder in tablet for oral products, as an extended release tablet matrix and in film coating. Depending upon the viscosity grade, concentration of 2-20% w/w are used in film coating tablets as film-forming solutions. In aqueous film-coating solutions Lower-viscosity grades are used. While in organic solvents higher-viscosity grades are used. Hypromellose at concentration between 0.45-1.0% w/w are may be used for eye drops and artificial tear solution as a thickening agent to vehicles. Also, used as suspending agent, an emulsifier, and stabilizing agent in topical ointments and gels. In addition, for manufacture of capsule hyprmellose is used, for hard contact lenses as a wetting agent and as an adhesive in plastic bandages. Also mostly used in food products and cosmetics. Stability and storage Conditions: HPMC powder is balanced material, although it is hygroscopic after drying. HPMC powder should be stored in a in a cool, dry place and in well- closed container. Incompatibilities: With some oxidizing agents HPMC is incompatible. HPMC will not complex with ionic organic or metallic salts to form insoluble precipitates since it is non-ionic. Safety: It is generally considered as a non-irritant and nontoxic material although oral consumption may have a laxative effect39. Sodium bicarbonate Non-proprietary names: BP/EP: sodium bicarbonate Synonym: Baking soda, e-500, and monosodium carbonate. Chemical name: carbonic acid, monosodium salt, monosodium carbonate. Empirical formula: NaHCO3 Molecular weight: 84.01 Category: alkalizing agent, therapeutic agent. Description: it is an odorless, white crystalline powder with slight alkaline taste. Acidity/ alkalinity: pH 8.3 for freshly prepared 0.1m aqueous solution at 250C. Density: 2.159 g/cm3 Solubility: Practically insoluble in ethanol and soluble in water,. Stability and storage: Sodium bicarbonate is balanced in dry air but still slowly disintegrates in moist air and should accordingly be reserved in a cool dry place and in well-closed container. Safety: sodium bicarbonate balance gastric acid with the change of carbon dioxide orally ingested and that may cause stomach cramps and flatulence. Applications: Employed as a cause of carbon dioxide in effervescent tablets and granules. Also used to buffer the drug molecules that are weak acids. Used in solutions as buffering agent. Also used as freeze-drying stabilizer. As a gas forming agent40. Magnesium stearate Nonproprietary names: BP: Magnesium Stearate, IP: Magnesium Stearate, PhEur: Magnesiistearas, USPNF: Magnesium Stearate. Synonyms: Magnesium octadecananoate; Octadecanoic acid; Magnesium salt; stearic acid magnesium salt. Empirical formula: C36H70MgO4 Chemical name: Octadecanoic acid magnesium salt Molecular weight: 591.34 Structural Formula: Fig 13. Structure of Magnesium Sterate Functional category: Capsule and tablet lubricant. Applications in Pharmaceutical Technology: Magnesium stearate is mostly used in pharmaceutical formulations food and cosmetics. Most primarily at the time of tablet and capsule manufacturing used as a lubricant with concentrations between 0.25% and 0.5% w/w. And also used in barrier creams. Description: Magnesium stearate is actual accomplished milled or precipitated, light white, impalable powder of less bulk density, having faint smell of stearic acid and a quality taste. The powder readily be attached to the skin and greasy to touch. Solubility: Practically insoluble in ether, ethanol (95%), ethanol, ether and water, slightly. Soluble in warm ethanol (95%) and warm benzene41. . Microcrystalline cellulose Synonyms: Microcrystalline cellulose, Avicel, Crystalline cellulose, emocel, vivacel, Cellulosum microcrystallinum. Chemical Name: Cellulose Empirical Formula: (C6H10O5)n where n ≈ 220. Structural formula: Fig 14: Structure of microcrystalline cellulose Functional category: suspending agent, Adsorbent, tablet disintegrant, tablet and capsule diluent. Applications in pharmaceutical formulation or technology: It is primarily used as a diluent/ binder in oral tablet and capsule formulation in both wet granulation processes and direct compression. It has also got some lubricant, antiadherent, and disintegrating properties, which is useful in tableting. Microcrystalline cellulose is used in food products and cosmetics. Description: It occurs as a white, tasteless, odourless crystalline powder keeping of porous particles. It is commercially applicable in different applications and properties. Solubility: Slightly soluble in 5% w/v sodium hydroxide solution; insoluble in most organic solvents, water and dilute acids. GradeNominal mean particle size ( µm)Moisture content Avicel pH -10150≠¤5.0 Avicel pH -102100≠¤5.0 Uses of microcrystalline cellulose Density (bulk): 0.28-0.32 g/cm3 for Avicel PH 102 and 0.29-0.36 g/cm3 for Avicel PH 200 pH: 5.5-7 Flowability: 1.41 g/s Melting point: 260–270 °C. Moisture content: Typically less than 5% w/w. Solubility: Insoluble in dilute acids and water, slightly soluble in 5% w/v sodium hydroxide solution. Specific surface area: 1.21–1.30 m2/g for Avicel pH-102, 0.78–1.18 m2/g for Avicel pH-200. Stability: Microcrystalline cellulose is a stable though hygroscopic material. Storage Conditions: Storeatambientconditions.Keepcontainers sealed; material is very hygroscopic. Incompatibilities: Incompatible with strong oxidizing agents43. Xanthum gum Synonyms: Bacterial Polysaccharide, Corn Sugar Gum, Xanthan, Gomme desucre de mais, Polysaccharide Xanthane, Gomme Xanthane, Polysaccharide Bactà ©rien, Xanthane, Goma Xantana, Xanthomonas campestris. Gomme de Xanthane, Description: Xanthan gum is a sugar-like compound prepared by blending aged (fermented) sugars with assured kind of bacteria. It is used to make medicine. It is used in making some medications and foods. In these products it has different effects. It can keep textures from changing, add thickness, and hold ingredients in place. In many types of medicines Xanthan gum is found. These include: Tablets which slowly break down in the body Liquid drops for the eyes Xanthan gum is formed by heating a carbohydrate (a substance which consists of sugar) withXanthomonas campestrisbacteria, then processing it. Uses: Use as a bulk-forming laxative to treatconstipation. In people with diabetes it lowers blood sugar. In people with diabetes it lowers cholesterollevels. For dry mouth used as a saliva substitute. Side effects: Xanthan gum assume to cause some side effects. A 1987 study, in that five men who are healthy ate roughly 10 to 13gm daily, has commence no adverse effects. It may cause gas. Risks.The FDA has warned against for giving simply thick to premature infants. It has been combined to a danger digestive problem called necrotizing enterocolitis in neonate born prematurely. Interactions: Medications for diabetes (Antidiabetes drugs) interrelates with XANTHAN GUM. By decreasing the absorption of sugars in food Xanthan gum might lower blood sugar. To lower blood sugar Diabetes medications are also used. Blood sugar to be too low may cause by taking xanthan gum with diabetes medications. Guide your blood sugar nearly. The dose of your diabetes medication may need to change. Some medications used for diabetes be composed of glimepiride (Amaryl), chlorpropamide (Diabinese), glyburide, glipizide (Glucotrol), (Micronase, Dia Beta, Pres Tab, Glynase), pioglitazone (Actos), insulin, rosiglitazone (Avandia), tolbutamide (Orinase), and others. Dosing: In scientific research the following doses have been studied. Bymouth: The World Health Organization (WHO) has agreed the maximum pleasing intake for xanthan gum as a laxative of 15 grams per day and as a food additive of 10 mg/kg /day. Xanthan gum require extra fluids for effectiveness and safety, bulk laxatives such as. For diabetes: As an ingredient in muffins a typical dose is 12grams per day44. Aerosil IUPAC Name: Silicon dioxide Synonyms: Quartz, Silicic oxide, Silica, Crystalline silica, Silicon (IV) oxide, Description: Silicon dioxide, also known assilica (from the  Latinsilex), is a  chemical compound  that is an  oxide  of  silicon  with  chemical formulaSiO2. It has been known since ancient times. Silica is most usually found in nature as  quartz or sand, and also in the  cell   walls  of  diatoms  (frustule). Silica is prepared in many forms including fused quartz,  crystal,  fumed silica  (or pyrogenic silica), aerogel,  colloidal silica, and silica gel49.

Universal Microcontroller (Mcu) Trainer

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION AND ITS BACKGROUND This section begins with a discussion of the role and importance of Microcontroller in everyday life. As we all know, Microcontrollers are considered as a major discovery in terms of science and technology. Just like the other major advances, it can control system and devices which can make people’s lives better and easier. Based on â€Å"The Microcontroller Idea Book† by Jan Axelson, Microcontroller is a computer-on-a-chip, or a single chip computer.It is said to be a single-chip computer because it contains memory and Input or Output interfaces in addition to the Central Processing Unit (CPU). Micro, as its name implies, advised that the device is small and Controller, however, tells that the device might be used to control objects as well as processes. Moreover, MCU has been described as an embedded controller, because the Microcontroller and its support circuits are often built into, or embedded in, the devices that they con trol.Basically, any product that interacts with its user has a microcontroller inside. The field of Microcontroller (MCU) beginning is due to the development of integrated circuits. It enabled the storing of hundreds of thousands of transistors into one chip which was later used in the manufacturing of Microcontrollers. Nowadays, we can find Microcontrollers in almost all kinds of things. Most of those things and devices are well-known to utilize for measuring, storing, calculating, controlling, and displaying of information.One of the largest applications of Microcontroller is in automobiles as it includes at least one MCU for engine control. In test equipment, microcontrollers make it easy to add features such as the ability to store measurements, to create and store user routines, and to display messages. In a desktop computer, MCU is founded inside keyboards, modems, printers, and other peripherals. Furthermore, products that we are fond of using like cameras, video recorders, c ompact-disk players, and ovens also use Microcontrollers. Background of the StudyMicrocontrollers have only been with us for a few decades but its impact on our lives is intense. Most of the microcontroller parts can be found in all electronic devices; it can be found on products which we use in our home like microwave ovens, alarm clock, washing machines, toys, and stereo equipment. Other common devices such as cash register, weighing scales, typewriters, photocopiers, elevators, industrial automation device, safety system, cars and traffic signals are some examples of microcontroller application.Numerous types of microcontrollers were designed and they quickly became man's invisible companion. It is also regarded as a powerful tool that allows a designer in creating his own design. Some of the crucial influence in the microcontroller development and success are powerful and carefully chosen electronics such as switches, push buttons, sensors, LCD displays, and relays, cheap automa tic devices and its power was widely spread prior to the knowledge in programming.With the necessity of making our MCU experience learning more enjoyable and helping us to do our jobs easier and safer, e- Gizmo decided to develop and launched the first Universal MCU Trainer. Unlike some of those mainstream MCU training kits, the e- Gizmo Training Kit is not attached to any particular type of microcontroller. It is known to be compatible with current MCU boards that include gizDuino, Zilog Encore, AVR ATMEGA8L, and Peripheral Interface Controller (PIC).In this project, the researchers should have the knowledge in programming, training experiments, as well as they should have the manipulation for the kits’ on board peripherals such as Relay and Motor Expander, Analog Voltage Sources, LM34 Temperature Sensor, 3 adjustable Voltage Sources, Digital to Analog DAC circuit, Switch Devices, Rotary Encoder Switch, 2 push button switches, 4 x 3 Keypad Matrix, Input and Output Expander, LED monitor, 2 Digit 7 segment LED display, Buzzer Circuit, Real Time Clock RTC, Alphanumeric LCD Display Unit, RS232 Interface Circuit, Power Supply Entry, Microcontroller Board Docking Port, and Breadboard.Project Objectives The main objective of this e- Gizmo Universal MCU kit is to test and learn the different kinds of application and peripherals on board. Moreover, the development of this microcontroller kit requires attaining the following: 1. ) To learn the programming languages use in microcontroller 2. ) To learn how to use the software through PC to the microcontroller 3. ) To learn the basic connection of the microcontroller to the MCU kit. 4. ) To study and familiarize the functions of the specific application use in the microcontroller 5. To learn how to connect or to know the relationship between the Input- Output or the application through the microcontroller Conceptual Framework The interrelation among the components of the microcontroller kit was shown as illustrate d in Figure 1. It represents the process on how the application and peripherals used in the trainer board works. In this kit, the researchers have used a microcontroller in gathering input from various applications, processing the input into a set of actions, and using the output mechanisms on the microcontroller to do something useful.The concept of the microcontroller kit was based on the need of creating convenient hardware designed for having knowledge and critical thinking for microcontroller widen. The diagram started with the input, followed by the process and the output. OUTPUT INPUT PROCESS RS 232 C INTERFACE 2 x 16 LCD DISPLAY BUZZER LED DRIVER OUTPUT EXPANDER RELAY STEPPER MOTOR DRIVER MICROCONTROLLER GIZDUINO AND PINGUINO 2 x 16 LCD DISPLAY REAL TIME CLOCK (RTC) INPUT EXPANDER 4 x 3 SWITCH EXPANDER PUSH BUTTON SWITCH ANALOG VOLTAGE OUTPUT TEMPERATURE SENSOR PROCESS GIZDUINO (USB CABLE) PINGUINO (UART MODE/USB CABLE)PERSONAL COMPUTER Figure 1. Conceptual Framework of e- G izmo Universal MCU Trainer The INPUT is comprises of 2 x 16 LCD Display, Real Time Clock (RTC), Input Expander, 4 x 3 Switch Matrix, Push Button Switch, Analog Voltage Output, and Temperature Sensor. LCD Display Module is tremendously popular low cost display device that can show user generated message in 2 lines x 16 alphanumeric format. Aside from 2 lines by 16 characters format, LCD modules are also available in 4 lines by 20 characters. A Real Time Clock (RTC) circuit serves as an electronic subsystem that keeps an accurate time and calendar.In addition, the next input is the Input Expander which has data out, since the host controller will be reading from U3 input port JP22. Furthermore, 4 x 3 Keypad matrix is also recognized as one of the input. The keypad used in this trainer consists of 12 push switches. The keypad switches are wired in 4 rows x 3 column arrangement. The Push Button Switches in the kit, which are S1 and S2, are held to logic 1 state by R2 and R3 when not pre ssed. There is also a well known device which is LM34 Temperature sensor U5 which gives an ambient temperature reading in analog Fahrenheit scale.After the Input, the figure shows the PROCESS which is comprises of Microcontroller Gizduino and Pinguino. Gizduino is ideal for beginner programmers and hobbyists because of its simplicity compared to other platforms. It is a multiplatform environment; it can run on Windows, Macintosh, and Linux. However, Pinguino is an Arduino for PIC user. Pinguino is also an Integrated Development Environment (IDE) which enables anyone to easily make an application on learning the program. Additionally, the program for both Gizduino and Pinguino is loaded to the Personal Computer which is also a major part of the process.Gizduino is programmable via USB (Universal Serial Bus) cable which makes it more accessible and allows communication to the computer. Pinguino, however uses UART mode through serial communication to PC. In addition, the OUTPUT include s RS 232 C Interface, 2 x 16 LCD Display, Buzzer, LED Driver, Output Expander, Relay, and Stepper Motor Driver. The RS 232 Interface allows the MCU UART to interface with RS 232 enabled devices. The function of the 2 x 16 LCD Display here in the output is the same as the input. For the 3rd output, the buzzer is used to indicate a warning or an alarm, a key closure or a machine function.The buzzer used in this trainer is essentially a small loudspeaker. With regards to the Output Expander, this trainer can have 8 outputs more using 5 or 6 MCU I/O. The Stepper Motor Drive subsection in the trainer can also be used to study and control stepper motor operations via user code. Significance of the Study The e- Gizmo Universal Microcontroller (MCU) Trainer was designed specifically for the benefits of the following: Electronic Designers. This trainer is intended for artists, designers, hobbyists, and anyone interested in prototyping and programming a microcontroller.The Students. This kit aspires for the students to acquire basic knowledge on how microcontroller works and also aims for students to be familiar with prototyping platform based on easy to use hardware and software. The Academe. Professors on higher education can use this trainer to introduce the college students on how to program and manage microcontroller the fast and easy way. The Researchers. With the help of this MCU kit, the researchers were able to have background about the major component details of both Gizduino and Pinguino platform, its features, and manual application.They were able to manipulate peripherals on board through programming familiarity. Future Researchers. This can serve as a guide to those who wants to delve into microcontroller relevance, and those who wanted to have comparisons among the MCU trainers that has been developed. The study also provides the data and guiding material about the universal trainer function. Scope and Limitation Scope The e- Gizmo Universal MCU trainer r equires an external well regulated +5V to power the whole trainer board. Unlike any other microcontroller trainers, this is unique since it does not assign to any single microcontroller.With this trainer, we can use available boards such as gizDuino itself (atmega 168 or atmega 328 versions), AVR atmega8L experimenter board, Zilog z8F042A MCU board, PIC18F2550, and STM32F100C8 ARM Cortex M3 MCU board. The gizDuino’s platform kit that has been executed in this trainer is a single board AVR microcontroller platform based on highly popular Arduino design. It is a multiplatform environment as it can run on Macintosh, Linux and Windows. It is also programmable via USB (Universal Serial Bus) cable as mentioned earlier.Gizduino’s User Interface is USB Port, DC Jack, Reset Button, ICSP Port, and Shield Connection Port. The external Power Input ranges from 8V- 12 V while it needed 5 V for USB. The DC Power Output is at 3. 3 V with a frequency of 16 MHz and 12 MHz. It is being p rogrammed using Integrated Development Environment (IDE). Additionally, PIC18F2550 platform which has also been programmed has an Arduino compatible layout. It works on Arduino like software development platform based on open source Pinguino project. The e- Gizmo’s Pinguino is also compatible with gizDuino line of shields and has an external power supply of 8V- 12V.Its communication medium is UART mode, serial communication to PC. Different applications are also placed on this trainer such as Relay and Motor Expander, Analog Voltage Sources, LM34 Temperature Sensor, 3 adjustable Voltage Sources, Digital to Analog DAC circuit, Switch Devices, Rotary Encoder Switch, 2 push button switches, 4 x 3 Keypad Matrix, Input and Output Expander, LED monitor, 2 Digit 7 segment LED display, Buzzer Circuit, Real Time Clock RTC, Alphanumeric LCD Display Unit, RS232 Interface Circuit, Power Supply Entry, Microcontroller Board Docking Port, s well as Breadboard. Limitation Since +5V is employ ed to power the trainer board, using unqualified +5V power source may cause damage to the trainer. Most components on this kit, especially the microcontrollers are known to be sensitive to Electrostatic discharge (ESD). With this, ESD may damage the trainer if not handled properly. As discussed, Microcontroller Board Docking is where the MCU board is installed. This accepts gizDuino style MCU board. However, since Arduino boards do not have extended connectors, it disallows any shields from being installed on it.Herewith, a suitable adapter is required for us to be able to use the Arduino with the Universal MCU Trainer. It should also be noted that each microcontroller family has its own software development kit (SDK) and some may require a separate programming cable. Definition of Terms Microcontroller (MCU). It is a small computer on a single integrated circuit containing a processor core, memory, and programmable input/output peripherals. Gizduino. It is an open source computing platform based on a simple input/output (I/O) board and use of standard programming language and is a tool for implementing specific design.Pinguino. It is also an Arduino compatible platform which works on Arduino like software development platform. Arduino. A popular open-source single-board microcontroller, descendant of the open-source wiring platform, designed to make the process of using electronics in multidisciplinary projects more accessible. AtMega 328. This is the microcontroller that powers the gizDuino. Integrated Development Environment (IDE). This is a software application that provides comprehensive facilities to computer programmers for software development. Zilog Encore.This system-on-a-chip includes an integrated memory controller, interfaces such as Universal Serial Bus (USB), Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) and Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI). RS232 Interface. It’s a RS232C Transistor Transistor Logic (TTL) level converter. LCD Display Module. A tremendous ly popular low cost display device that can show user generated messages in 2 lines x 16 alphanumeric characters format. Breadboard. It is used to easily build small circuits to work on in addition to the trainer module. Real Time Clock (RTC). Is an electronic subsystem that keeps an accurate time and calendar.Buzzer. It is an annunciator which provides cost effective audible feedback between the machine and the user. Light Emitting Diode (LED). Is a semiconductor diode that emits light when conducting current and is used in electrical equipment. Liquid Crystal Display (LCD). It is a flat panel display, electronic visual display or video display that uses the light modulating properties of liquid crystals. Multiplexing. A method used to rapidly switch two or more digits in synchronization with their corresponding segment drives (a-b-c-d-e-f-g). Input/Output Expander.This is used to serve 8 inputs and 8 outputs more using 5 or 6 microcontroller I/O. 4 x 3 Keypad Matrix. It is a small group of keys used to manually enter a data or a command while the microcontroller is running. Encoder Switch. Also known as rotary quadrature encoder switch, is a pure digital device that has the feel of an analog potentiometer. Push Button. An electrical switch operated by pressing a button, which closes or opens a circuit. Digital to Analog Converter (DAC). It is an interface device that will allow outputting an analog voltage based on a digital value.Analog Voltage Source. It provides both simulated and real analog voltage source which is used in Digital to Analog Converter. Stepper Motor Drive. This section in the trainer is used to control stepper motor operations via user code. Relay. Is an electrically operated switch, use an electromagnet to operate a switching mechanism mechanically and they are used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low power signal. Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter (UART). It is the microchip with programming that controls a com puter's interface to its attached serial devices.

Casualization and Its Effects in Kenya

Impact of Labor Laws in Mitigating Effects of casualisation in Kenya Humphrey Mwangi  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   HD333-BOI-1413/2009 Franklin Mutwiri  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   HD333-BOI-1604/2009 Patrick Mutai  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   HD333-BOI-0087/2009 John Warihe  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   HD333-BOI-1268/2009 Susan Awuor  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   HD333-BOI-1222/2009 Mary Mumira  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   HD333-BOI-1246/2009 James Otunga  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   HD333-BOI-1421/2009 Kevin Kariuki  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   HD333-BOI-1249/2009 Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology CBD Campus Presented to E. O. Achoch Abstract This study explores and examines the actual impact of labor legislation in mitigating the disturbing issue of casualisation of work in Kenya. The increase in casualisation in the country is a subject of great controversy. Increasingly casual employees are filling positions that are permanent in nature. Behind employee vulnerability in the country is the high levels of unemployment and accompanying poverty. Poverty has bred a dangerous work environment where many desperate job seekers in the labor force are willing to take any job for survival purposes rather than dignity. This is a big challenge for trade unions in their pursuit to protect and advance workers’ rights and foster decent work conditions. The study attempts to cover the following as per the terms of reference: What exactly is casualisation of work, How wide spread is it in Kenya, What difference has new provision in labor legislation made on casuals according to gender, occupation, status etc, How Labor Laws Have Affected Aspects Of Casual Workers rights, do labor laws affect the family of casual workers communities and local stakeholders such as trade union and NGO’s and what are the views of employers’ in terms of impact of labor laws and casualisation of work and their sustainability. Keywords: Federation of Kenyan Employers, Standard Employment Regulation Impact of Labor Laws in Mitigating Effects of casualisation in Kenya Collins Dictionary defines casualisation as altering of working practices so that regular workers are re-employed on a casual or short-term basis. Casual employment is also referred in some literatures as â€Å"precariousness† a familiar term in employment (Burgess and Campbell 1998; Weller and Webber 2001; Hunter 2006). Precariousness is seen in terms of bundles of job characteristics to do with insecurity and poor quality of life. It is characterized with lack of regulatory protection and working time insecurity Casualisation of a workforce is therefore reduction in full or part time employees and their replacement with employees who are called in on an as-needed or casual basis. This can reduce the employees working conditions by reducing the commitment from the employer to them, and giving the employer opportunities to control them by reducing their hours. Casual workers can be more difficult for employers to manage as they have no guarantee of finding available employees at any time, but they have the advantage of only employing people when they have the work for them An elastic approach to casualisation refer to non-standard and non-permanent employment relationships such as temporary work, fixed term contracts, seasonal work and subcontracting or outsourcing. It is also important to make a further distinction between casuals that are employed directly by the company or those that are supplied through outsourcing and subcontracting arrangements. Typically support services such as cleaning and catering and in some cases transportation and distribution and security are subcontracted. According to Okougbo (2004) casualisation of work is characterized by demand for employment which is highly variable such as port work, farm work, farm migratory work and other jobs of unskilled intermittent nature. He further states that contract labor is a form of involuntary servitude for a period of time. Labor and service contracts are terms used by management to describe contract labor. Management sometimes refers to it as â€Å"body shop† or â€Å"direct hire† while other refer to contract labor as service providers. Neo-liberal market restructuring globally and in the region is the driving force behind the sharp increase in casualisation. Neo-liberalism seeks to deregulate markets including the labor market to increase labor flexibility. In short, employers want the freedom to pay low wage, change the number of workers and how and when work is conducted thus this is casualisation. According to the employment act (2007) If an employee works for a period or a number of continuous working days which amount in the aggregate to the equivalent of not less than one month, or performs work which can not reasonably be expected to be completed within a period, or a number of working days amounting in the aggregate to the equivalent of three months or more, then the contract of service of the casual employee shall be deemed to be one where wages are paid monthly and section 35 (1) (c) shall apply to that contract of service. Labor Relations Act which prescribes that casual worker should be employed permanently after three months of continuous work besides which employees are supposed to be provided with medical and housing benefits. The Act also stipulate that an employee whose contract of service has been converted in accordance with subsection (1) (Employment Act, 2007) and who works continuously for two months or more from the date of employment as a casual employee shall be entitled to such terms and conditions of service as he / she would have been entitled to under this Act (Employment Act, 2007) had he not initially been employed as a casual employee. These include:- †¢ Notice. Where the contract is to pay wages or salary periodically at intervals of or exceeding one month, a contract is terminable by either party at the end of the period of twenty-eight days next following the giving of notice in writing †¢ Working hours. An employer shall regulate the working hours of each employee in accordance with the provisions of this Act and any other written law. Rest period. According to the employment Act subsection (1), an employee shall be entitled to at least one rest day in every period of seven days. Annual leave. After every twelve consecutive months of service with his employer to not less than twenty-one working days of leave with full pay †¢ Maternity leave. A female employee shall be entitled to three months maternity leave with full pay. The female employee shall have the right to return to the job which she held immediately prior to her maternity leave or to a reasonably suitable job on terms and conditions no t less favorable than those which would have applied had she not been on maternity leave. A male employer shall be entitled to two weeks paternity leave with full pay. †¢ Sick leave. After two consecutive months of service with his employer, an employee shall be entitled to sick leave of not less than seven days with full pay and thereafter to sick leave of seven days with half pay. †¢ Medical attention. Subject to subsection (2), an employer shall ensure the provision sufficient and of proper medicine for his employees during illness and if possible, medical attendance during serious illness. †¢ Service pay. The casual shall be entitled to service pay for every year worked, the terms of which shall be fixed. The wage bill in the private sector, a key driver of household consumption, is increasingly dipping as most employers opt for casual workers to cushion themselves against a harsh business environment. Despite stiff regulations introduced last year to protect casual workers from exploitation, thus making hiring of such employees expensive, Government statistics (GOK, 2006) show that casual employment grew by 13 per cent last year compared to a five per cent growth in 2007. Comparatively, the levels of regular employment dipped 2. 9 per cent in 2008, reflecting employers' preference of hiring casuals during the period, says the 2009 Economic Survey (GOK 2009). Casual workers accounted for 32 per cent of total wage employment. As a result of this preference, the private sector wage bill grew by a measly 10 per cent, compared to a 14. 6 per cent rise in 2007. This is attributed to increased use of casual laborers whose pay is usually lower than that of regular employees. The economy is also gradually sliding into a largely casual employment which could have dire implications in the already turbulent labor market,. This would reduce domestic consumption as households will have less to spend, thus reducing demand in the productive sectors and hampering poverty eradication. The Enactment of the Employment Act by Kenyan parliament roots for better protection of casual laborers by making it mandatory for employers to remit statutory deductions to the National Social Security Fund (NSSF) and the National Hospital Insurance Fund (NHIF). Previously, casual and contract workers – who constitute the majority of Kenyan workforce and include house-helps, watchmen, matatu touts and building and construction workers did not qualify for most of the benefits that are available to permanent employees. There is also a bigger risk of lay -offs for casual workers to escape the statutory contributions. The greatest impact that the new laws have had in the labor market is to push employers towards outsourcing the services of workers they would ordinarily employ as casuals to cut costs. This had negatively affected the job market in that companies cannot absorb more jobs and worse still, they have to cut their marketing and advertising budgets to cope. Casual employment remains the cheapest way of engaging workers, especially so at these hard economic times when employers focus is on taming labor costs. But the flipside is that we might end up with lower revenues from income tax if the labor market was to be largely made up of casuals. The purchasing power for families will also reduce drastically. Hired on short-term contracts, casual workers strive to fulfill production quotas for long working hours under poor working conditions and low wages, often without maternity or sick leave, housing and medical allowances. Most of them are denied right to join trade unions and basic services like water while some are victims of reported sexual harassment at the work place. They face stiff penalties for mistakes, work while sitting or standing for between eight and twelve hours daily, with only a forty five minute break in between, in order to beat the quota set by supervisors Kugler et al (2003). Their daily pay is between Sh120 and Sh160 but a percentage is deducted ostensibly for social security or hospital insurance contributions, which rarely benefit them (GOK, 2003). Casual labor market is perpetuated by lack of any permanent, on-going attachment between employer and worker (Ralph C. 1960). Where this condition exists and where entry of worker is easy due to low skill requirements and the absence of institutional barriers, the labor market is likely to accumulate a chronic surplus of supply. The resultant highly competitive market is conducive to corrupt hiring practice and a wide variety of other social evils. Casual workers provide cover at short notice for the absence of permanent staff. Some may belong to an area â€Å"pool† of relief workers who are contracted when work becomes available. The key characteristics of a casual worker are; †¢ They are offered work for a specific day or session only †¢ They have no right to be offered work beyond that day or session There is no regularity of work. It is characterized with lack of regulatory protection and working-time insecurity (Tham, 2007). In contrast to standard employment, there’s little right to protection against unfair dismissal and no right to notice in case of dismissal (O’Donnell, 2004). As a result casual tends to have even less employment security than fixed term employees since they can be dismissed with ease at almost any time. This greatly affects their financial proposition as they are not sure of their fate-they literally live a day at a time. Most dramatically, casual employment is exempted from almost all rights and benefits that have come to be attached to â€Å"permanent† contracts. These include such basic entitlements as annual leave, sick leave and payment for public holidays (Watson et al, 2003). The main attribute is a simple entitlement to wage enhanced in some cases by so called casual loading on the hourly rate of pay. Precariousness has several dimensions but ultimately two of which impact greatly on casual labor rights. These include; †¢ Lack of regulatory protection Working-time insecurity Other critical dimensions may include low and irregular earnings and employment insecurity which statues are overwhelmingly silent on. Statutory regulations has played only a limited role in establishing a standard employment regulation (SER) through the provision of dynamic standards to support a platform of â€Å"decent† work (Cooney et al, 2006). However, it is a complicated and layered system leaving sizeable gaps as a result of poor coverage, poor enforcement and exemptions. The award system provides a large array of rights and entitlements for employees but these are generally confined to full time permanent (standard) employees (Campbell, 2004). These clauses permit casual employment under certain limitations and then specify that casual workers are exempted from most rights entitlements starting with employment protections such as rights to notice and compensation for dismissal. This lack of regulatory protection is not confined to non-standard work. It can also apply to parts of standard workforce where gaps in protection have been eroded. Standardized working time arrangements are central to SER. Deviations from the norms centered on working hours involves; †¢ irregular work hour both in number and timing †¢ overly short †¢ overly long These represent a much change in present period, drains employees, control over work and sponsoring increased working-time insecurity. Another central feature of casual employment is the ability of employers to determine the number and timing of hours and to alter these at short notice. Casuals appears here as easily available, easily deployed in workplace and then easily disposable (Walsh et al, 1999). Negotiation of working hours is commonly a rather fraught process in which workers are often reluctant to refuse shifts-even at short notice and even at inconvenient times-for fear of jeopardizing future offers (Pocock et al, 2004). According to Barone (2001) there do exists various institutional arrangements that can provide employment protection; the private market, labor legislation, collective bargaining arrangements and contractual provisions. Some forms of de facto regulations are also likely to be adopted even in the absence of legislation simply because both workers and firms can derive advantages from long-term employment relations (OECD,1999). This is invariably averse to employment protection legislation which has of recent days been seen to shut its doors on plight of casuals (Kugler et al,2003). Employer’s opinion on casualisation can also be deduced from Federation of Kenyan Employers which is a registered umbrella body of employers in Kenya. FKE has duties such as; to encourage the principle of sound industrial relations and observance of fair labor practices as well as to promote sound management practices amongst employers through training, research and consultancy services and adoption of best practices. FKE was established in January 1969 in response to the activities of the then-Kenya Federation of Labor, which had unified the trade union movement into a single entity. The employers felt they needed an organization that could represent them on major social and economic issues. Since then, the Federation has gained considerable strength and power. It started as a body with only 161 employers; today it represents about 3,000. On the thorny issue of casual labor, the group has few real answers. Since a large number of Kenya's industries are seasonal in nature, like agriculture, hotels, restaurants, plantations and other related businesses, it is very difficult to eliminate casual labor entirely. According to the employment act (2007) cap 35 (a) casual staff can be employed by a company if the contract will not exceed the three month agreement for casual staffing stipulated by the labor law. If there is to be a continuation of the person in the position beyond the three month agreement, the employer is expected to give a contract letter to the individual stipulating the terms of employment. Accordingly FKE (2007) casualisation is rife in the country; but most of the companies perpetuating the offence are not mainly its members, so this has limited what the organization can do about it. However, many employers argue that due to economic hardship not only witnessed in Kenya but globally, they are forced to employ their workers as casuals because they will not afford to sustain them  in the long run. Many companies usually have periods of booming and recessions in there businesses and such will determine employment of staff. Some industrial companies employ workers as casual for two months then they relieve them of their duties and hire new staffs. The treatment of â€Å"casuals,† says COTU Secretary-General, Francis Atwoli (2009), â€Å"has haunted the trade union movement for many years and is a throwback to the colonial era when workers were classified as casual people†. Atwoli believes the Kenyan labor movement could be strengthened if the casuals were allowed to unionize. To this end, COTU is now negotiating with the government to organize casual workers regardless of their salaries. COTU also wants all casual workers to become eligible for the benefits that permanent workers get: worker's compensation, housing and pensions. The COTU secretary-general recently flayed FKE for advocating that the government should institute more controls on wages. Atwoli sees such a move as an obstacle to expansion in industry. He argues that if workers are poorly paid, their purchasing power will remain low and they will not be able to afford manufactured goods. This will keep manufacturers from expanding and new jobs will remain an unfulfilled goal. Observers in business circles think investors view low wages with mixed emotions: while some foreign investors look at low wages as a sure means of maximizing profits, others see them as a sure way of reducing purchasing power in the market which could subsequently mean low sales. On the other hand, government economists argue that it is better to maintain low wages that the national economy can support rather than high wages that will lead to high inflation. FKE argues that â€Å"In raising minimum wages they are guided by certain factors like the ability of the economy,†Ã‚   To sustain any level of minimum wages, FKE says, other factors come into play like the level of unemployment in the country as well as the ability of the small employers to pay. FKE believes that COTU has to be realistic in its approach to the whole issue but FKE is studying COTU's demands. However, it should be noted all players i. e. the government, FKE and COTU concurs that unionizing casuals may be essential to safeguard the gains of all Kenyan workers. Low wages and limited benefits make casuals an attractive proposition for companies trying to cut costs. Discussion The exploding population will only exacerbate the situation as more and more workers enter a work market incapable of keeping pace with this growth. As the population growth continues to outpace the growth of jobs, employers will have increasing leverage to demand concessions from both workers and their unions. Kenya's labor movement must somehow address these issues if it is to continue to make progress on worker's rights. References Campell, 1 (2004) ‘Casual work and casaulisation: how does Australia Compare’? Labour and Industry, 15(2): 85-111. – (2007) ‘long working hours in Australia: working-time regulation and employer Pressures' Economic and Labour relation Review, 17(2): 37-68. – (2008a) ‘Australia: institutional changes and workforce fragmentation’, S. Lee and F Eyraud (eds) Globalization, Flexibilization and working condtion in Asia And the Pacific London: Chandos (2008b) ‘Pressing towards full employment? The persistence of underemployment in Australia’, Journal of Australian Political Economy, 61:0156-80. Cooney, S. , Howe, J. and Murray, J. (2006) ‘Time and money under Workchoices: Understanding the new workplace Relations Act as a scheme of regulation’, UNSW Law Journal 29(1): 215-41. Hunter, R. (2006) ‘the legal orudution of precarious work’, in j Fudge and R. Owens (eds) Precarious Work, Women and the new economy: the challenge to legal norms, Oxford: Hart. Junor, A. 1998) ‘permanent part-time work: new family-friendly standard or high Intensity cheap skills? ’, Labour and Industry, 8(3): 77-95. Pocock, B. , Buchanan, J. and Campbell, I. (2004) ‘Meeting the challenge of casual Work in Australia: evidence, past treatment and future policy’, Australia bulletin Of Labour, 30(1): 16-32 Pocock B. , Prosser, R. and Bridge, K. (2004) ‘Only a casual†¦ ‘: how casual work Affects employees, households and communiti es in Australia, Discussion Paper, Adelaide: Labour studies, university of Adelaide. Okougbo, E. 2004. Strategic Issues on the Dynamics of Industrial Relations: Theory and Practice. Lagos: Wepoapo Enterprise. Weber, M. 1947. Protestant Ethics and Spirit of Gapitalism Tham, J-c (2007) ‘Towards an understanding of standard employment relationships Under Australian labor law’, Australian journal of labor law, 20(2): 123-58. Walsh, J. and Deery, s. (1999) ‘understanding the peripheral workforce: evidence From the service sector’, Human resource management Journal, 9(2): 50-63.

FBI Uniform Crime Report - 1064 Words

Uniform Crime Reporting Gabriel Padua CJA/314 January 20, 2015 Paulina Solis Uniform Crime Report Ever wonder how crimes are measured? What is FBI Uniform Crime Report data? How these Crime Statistics are produce? And how is burglary define? FBI Uniform Crime Reporting Data The Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) Program is one of the two ways crime rates are measured in the United States. The Uniform Crime Reports (n.d.) website, UCR is the starting place for law enforcement executives, criminal justice students, members of the media, researchers, and the public seeking information on crime in the nation. The idea of the program was conceived in 1929 by the International Association of Chiefs of Police to meet the need for reliable†¦show more content†¦According to the 2013 Uniform Crime Reports (n.d.) website, the city of Los Angeles has a population of 3,878,725 and had 15,728 burglaries reported to the police. Making the rate total Groups of 100,000 People of 38.78725 and Instances of Crime Per Capita of 405.49407343908115. Also according to the 2013 Uniform Crime Reports† (n.d.) website, the city of Anaheim has a population of 345,320 and had 1,412 burglaries reported to the police. Making the rate total Groups of 100,000 people of 3.4532 and instances of Crime Per Capita of 408.8960963743774. The area of Anaheim in compare with Los Angeles has 3.4020229352963 more Crime Per Capita. Even though Anaheim has approximately 10 times less the population it has a bit more of Crime Per Capita. There are many factors that might explain the differences in the rates for example unemployment, the relationship between the community and the police departments, and possibly the ratio between social classes of high class, middle classes and low classes. Also any political agendas, or even laws could affect the social economical differences between metropolitan cities, disregarding the size of the population. Conclusion The Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) Program is one of the two ways crime rates are measured in the United States. These Crime Statistics are produced from data received from over 18,000 city,Show MoreRelatedFbi s Uniform Crime Report935 Words   |  4 Pagesthe second-lowest rate of property crime and violent crime in 2011 among the largest cities in Maricopa County, based on the city’s analysis of the latest FBI statistics† (Arthur, n.d.). Could social economic play a role in Surprise, Arizona’s low violent and property crime rate? 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